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Although many different types of photosensitive devices exist, two are used most commonly as photodetectors in modern networks: positiveintrinsic-negative (PIN) photodiodes and avalanche photodiodes (APDs). Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN) Photodiodes PIN photodiodes are similar to the device described previously in the general discussion of photosensitive semiconductors. Reverse biasing the junction region of the device prevents a current flow until light at a specific wavelength strikes the substance, creating electron-hole pairs and enabling the current to flow across the three-layer interface in proportion to the intensity

366 Introduction to semiconductors are pulled towards the positive charge, away from the junction. In the P-type material, holes are pulled toward the negative charge, also away from the junction. The electrons (in the N-type material) and holes (in the P type) are the majority charge carriers. They become depleted in the vicinity of the P-N junction (Fig. 19-5B). A shortage of majority carriers means that the semiconductor material cannot conduct well. Thus, the depletion region acts like an insulator.

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2 times the applied rms ac voltage to ensure that they won t break down The output of a full-wave center-tap rectifier is easier to filter than that of a half-wave rectifier because the frequency of the pulsations in the dc (known as the ripple frequency) from a full-wave rectifier is twice the ripple frequency of the pulsating dc from a half-wave rectifier, assuming identical ac input frequency in either situation If you compare Fig 21-2B with Fig 21-2A, you will see that the full-wave-rectifier output is closer to pure dc than the half-wave rectifier output Another advantage of a full-wave center-tap rectifier is the fact that it s gentler with the transformer and diodes than a half-wave rectifier.

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Some P-N junctions can alternate between conduction (in forward bias) and nonconduction (in reverse bias) millions or billions of times per second. Other junctions are slower. The main limiting factor is the capacitance at the P-N junction during conditions of reverse bias. The amount of capacitance depends on several factors, including the operating voltage, the type of semiconductor material, and the cross-sectional area of the P-N junction. By examining Fig. 19-5B, you should notice that the depletion region, sandwiched between two semiconducting sections, resembles the dielectric of a capacitor. In fact, the similarity is such that a reverse-biased P-N junction really is a capacitor. Some semiconductor components are made with this property specifically in mind. The junction capacitance can be varied by changing the reverse-bias voltage, because this voltage affects the width of the depletion region. The greater the reverse voltage, the wider the depletion region gets, and the smaller the capacitance becomes. In the next chapter, you ll learn how engineers take advantage of this effect.

Yet another asset: When a load is applied to the output of a power supply that uses a full-wave center-tap rectifier circuit, the voltage drops less than is the case with a half-wave supply But because the transformer is more sophisticated, the full-wave center-tap circuit costs more than a half-wave circuit that delivers the same output voltage at the same rated maximum current..

The greater the reverse bias voltage, the more determined an insulator a P-N junction gets to a point. If the reverse bias goes past this critical value, the voltage overcomes the ability of the junction to prevent the flow of current, and the junction conducts as if it were forward biased. This avalanche effect does not ruin the junction (unless the voltage is extreme); it s a temporary thing. When the voltage drops back below the critical value, the junction behaves normally again. Some components are designed to take advantage of the avalanche effect. In other cases, avalanche effect limits the performance of a circuit. In a device designed for voltage regulation, called a Zener diode, you ll hear about the avalanche voltage or Zener voltage specification. This might range from a couple of volts to well over 100 V. It s important in the design of voltage-regulating circuits in solid-state power supplies; this is discussed in the next chapter. For rectifier diodes in power supplies, you ll hear about the peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) specification. It s important that rectifier diodes have PIV great enough so that avalanche effect will not occur (or even come close to happening) during any part of the ac cycle. Otherwise, the circuit efficiency will be compromised.

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